Webtoon writers’ working conditions

Korean Institute of Labor Safety and Health

2022

Webtoons are digital comic strips that originated in South Korea in the late 1990s. They are usually published in a vertical strip to facilitate reading on mobile phones. In 2015, the reported market for webtoons and their derivatives was approximately 420 billion won (~USD$368 million).¹ In 2021, the global webtoons market size was valued at USD$3.7 billion with the Asia-Pacific region accounting for the highest market share.² 

I. Background

There has been a significant growth in webtoon platforms in South Korea.

• There has been a high growth rate of sales and exports in the South Korean cartoon industry.
• A value chain has been established that stably produces movies or dramas based on the content of webtoon platforms and distributes them.
• Along with the growth of the platforms, the related labor force has also increased rapidly.

Work environment issues of webtoon writers are on the rise.

• Most writers post a certain amount of webtoon output per week – e.g., one episode per week.

• Most serial writers perform high-intensity labor to meet weekly deadlines.

Complex contractual relationships and unequal labor structures.

• There is either a direct contract between the artist and the platform, or an intermediary contract with an agency or studio that coordinates complex contracts on the artist’s behalf.

• Agencies and studios are entrusted with the right to delegate the artist’s management and exercise creative property rights, etc., when they coordinate contracts with the platforms.

• Artists belonging to a studio are responsible for their specialized fields such as coloring, adaptation, drawing, and editing as members of projects produced by that studio.

• In this process, various stakeholders arise, complicating the contract structure and making it difficult for independent artists contracting with a company to reflect their opinions when signing a contract.

The manuscript fee calculation method is complicated.

• In the webtoon industry, writers have a per-series contract with the platform, so they only get paid when the entire work is published on the platform. Therefore, the Minimum Guarantee (MG) system was introduced to guarantee income during the work preparation period. In addition to the manuscript fee, the company pays a certain amount in advance and is later repaid with the contracted work. Excess revenue above MG is called Revenue Share (RS) and is distributed between the platform and the artist according to the agreed ratio.
• MG is an amount received in advance with the expectation that a certain level of profit will be made, so the artist bears the uncertainty that the work will make the expected profit.

The practice of not being able to share contract terms due to confidentiality clauses.

• In general, most platforms sign contracts for more than 70 cuts per episode,³ upload once a week, and cover a serial publication period of 6 months to 1 year.
• Specific contract terms cannot be shared due to a confidentiality clause in the contract.

• Due to the asymmetry of information, webtoon writers have no choice but to accept contract practices presented by the platform.

II. Methods

1. In-depth interviews

• In-depth interviews were conducted with 15 webtoon writers belonging to the Webtoon Creator Union, the Digital Contents Creative Workers branch of the Korea Women Workers’ Union, and the Korea Cartoonists Association.
• Interviews lasted about 2 hours and discussed perceptions, attitudes, and experiences about the working environment, quality of life, health, etc.

2. Online survey

• Subjects consisted of full-time webtoon writers with an income of over 500,000 won (~USD$386) as a webtoon writer in the past year.
• 320 people participated in the survey.
• The contents of the survey included basic demographic characteristics, the field of activity, career, working environment, the experience of ill-treatment and violence, health behaviors, health and disease status (including mental health), and social isolation.

III. Results

1. Interview results

(1) Working environment

The working environment has changed.

• Modification became easier after switching to digital work, but there was no significant difference in the perceived workload due to additional work (touch-up, coloring, background work).
• In the past, the apprenticeship system was a place for learning and information exchange, but now it is difficult to share information as an independent webtoon writer.

• In the past, the contract form for published comics was standardized, but the current webtoon industry has become very complicated in terms of contract forms and subjects.

• In the past, published comics had the option of closing weekly, biweekly, or monthly deadlines, etc., but now they are all unified as weekly serials.

The working environment characteristics include excessive workloads, high work intensity, and long working hours.

• Webtoon artists work long hours to meet deadlines. It is difficult to maintain a regular routine because they work on minimum sleep.
• As the number of cuts required per session increases, long hours of labor are unavoidable. In some cases, the minimum number of cuts may be stipulated in the contract, which is enforeable.
• A high number of cuts is the main cause of an increase in workload, but to effectively tell the story in one episode an appropriate number of cuts is needed. Therefore, other solutions are needed rather than simply limiting the number of cuts.
• Uniform weekly deadlines lead to excessive workload and high work tension. If the artist has a deadline once a week, they need to adjust their rhythm to a shorter weekly Some artists request a different publication cycle because they feel that the short story arcs and weekly feedback can affect the continuity of the story.
• An extra completed manuscript(s) is kept in reserve to prepare for a leave of absence due to illness or personal circumstances. However, since payment of the manuscript fee is usually made the next day or the following month after the manuscript is submitted, the extra manuscript is in fact unpaid labor.
• Most webtoon writers working on projects they created, work only on that project. However, assistant writers have no choice but to increase the number of webtoons they work on to obtain the desired income due to low unit prices. As the division of labor to produce webtoons increases, unit prices tend to decrease, resulting in long hours of work.

Workers have an unbalanced relationship with the platform due to low work autonomy, high duties, and transfer of responsibilities.

• The exhibition platform exerts influence on the artist beyond the exhibition space where produced cultural content is posted. Although exclusivity is low, dependency is high because it is difficult to reject the contract conditions and instructions presented by the platform. Measures to recognize and protect webtoon writers as employees are needed.

• There are cases where the platform interferes with the work, such as drawing or requesting a specific scene. At this time, it is difficult for the artist to reject the platform’s request in anticipation of disadvantages such as being excluded from promotions.

• Platforms are not fulfilling their responsibilities In addition to frequent payment mistakes, there are many platforms that take a hands-off approach to issues such as copyright disputes and illegal webtoon distribution.

(2) Unfair contract practices

It is not easy to share information such as normal contract conditions among webtoon writers.

• Confidentiality clauses prevent sharing of contract terms. New writers are at high risk of entering into unfair contracts.
• The South Korean Copyright Board has questioned whether the act of seeking review by others, including lawyers, on the contract issued to the artist can violate the confidentiality agreement, and how the damage can be estimated.
• Writers are aware of standard contracts, but very few have signed standard contracts.
• Education about contracts is necessary.

(3) Immediate response from the public: Comment culture has become a double-edged sword

Comment culture, which has the positive function of checking the readers’ reactions, can cause a lot of mental pain because the writer can receive malicious reactions from anonymous readers in real time.

• The problem with the comment space is the absence of a person in charge of managing malicious comments that are written indiscriminately.
• Sincere advice and reactions to the work are essential, but there needs to be a way for artists to control the level of exposure to readers’ comments.

(4) Piracy and copyright issues, experience of violence: lack of support structures

Illegal webtoon sites and copyright issues caused by plagiarism are the factors that give webtoon writers the greatest sense of helplessness.

• There is no responsible support structure.
• The protection system for copyright-related issues is very weak. Platforms and content producers do not play a protective role at all when it comes to plagiarism disputes related to other genres, such as dramas and movies, as well as the theft of ideas between webtoon writers.
• Illegal webtoon sites are a common enough problem that almost all writers have experienced them.

(5) Not covered by a welfare system

There is an artist association that can help artists, including webtoon writers, with their wage payment problems and unfair contract terms, but it is difficult to get practical help.

• The Artist Welfare Foundation has a psychological counseling program, but the counselors lack expertise and do not serve as a support structure.
• There is no paid vacation for webtoon writers.
• The right to take a leave of absence needs to be guaranteed in order to cope with sudden health problems or personal circumstances.

2. Life and quality of health

(1) Webtoons preying on the writer’s daily life

a. Job stress

In order to pursue the completion of their work, there are many cases in which individuals manage their motivation and daily life according to the progress of their work.

• They are too obsessed with work all day and cannot take a break even when they are resting.
• It is difficult to maintain social relationships due to a life buried in work.
• If artists live with their family, they may have problems maintaining close relationships because they have no time to take care of their family.

b. Substance dependence

There are cases of drug abuse because deadlines are prioritized.

• Stimulant beverages are frequently consumed to help meet deadlines.

(2) Sleep deprivation

• Many writers complain about sleep deprivation and sleep disorders.

(3) Irregular life and eating habits

There are many cases of artists with irregular eating habits and lack of time to take care of basic personal needs.

• Because there is no time to spare due to deadlines, there are many cases of eating delivery food.
• When working alone, an artist often has irregular eating habits, but when working in a studio or living with other employees, they have relatively regular eating habits.

(4) Diseases

a. Mental illness

Many writers experience depression. Some writers have experienced suicidal thoughts.

• Visiting a psychiatrist is common among writers, and they do not hesitate to do so.
• The working conditions themselves are a risk factor for mental illness, and the lack of human interaction can lead to social isolation and loneliness.

b. Frequent diseases

Musculoskeletal disorders (herniated intervertebral disc, carpal tunnel syndrome, finger arthritis), cystitis, gastrointestinal diseases and ophthalmological diseases are common.

c. Right to rest

• During the serialization period, it is difficult to receive treatment for diseases, so there are many cases where the treatment period is missed.
• The need for the right to rest for disease treatment and recovery has emerged.
• However, platforms evaluate the sincerity of the artist based on whether they minimize the number of days of absence which is sometimes reflected in the contract for the next work.

3. Survey analysis

1) Characteristics of participants

(1) General characteristics

• A total of 320 participants, including 234 females (73% female).
• Writer experience (312 respondents) averaged15 years, with a median of 3 years.
• As for the contract type, serial publication contracts per work were most common with 56% (163 people) using them.
• Employment contract (18%) followed by sole proprietorship (12%) occurred less frequently. For writers that do not have a sole proprietorship, direct contracts with the platform accounted for the highest number at 49% (117 persons) of participants.
• The main fields of activity of the participants were independent work (43%), story writers (31%), and drawing artists (26%).
• As for the annual income of the participants, the highest monthly income was 2 to 4 million won (~USD$1500 – $3000), and the minimum monthly income was 0.5 to 1 million won (~USD$386 – $773).

(2) working environment

• The average working hours per day was 9.9 hours per day with an average of8 hours per day on the day before the deadline. The number of working days per week is 5.7 days, and the average working hours per week is 51 hours.
• Start time: 6-10 am (62%), 11 am-15 pm (25%).
• Work end time: 2000-2400 pm (37%), 1500-1900 pm (29%).
• Most of the survey respondents answered that working hours are not appropriate (64%).
• A significant number of survey respondents complained that they are always physically exhausted (29%) and mentally exhausted (32%).
• The average Borg scale of all survey respondents (evaluating how difficult their usual work is) was 14.5 points, corresponding to a ‘difficult’ level.
• Number of required cuts per episode: average 68 cuts, median 70 cuts.
• On the other hand, the number of cuts per episode as deemed appropriate by writers: average 52 cuts, median 50 cuts.
• The most common frequency of publication was once a week at 63% (196 people).
• It is impossible to take a break when desired (47%), and it is impossible to adjust the serial publication cycle (67%), so work discretion (i.e. autonomy and decision-making latitude) is very low.
• As for webtoon-specific comments culture, 28% of the respondents check comments every day, and 5% check every hour.
• Approxmiately half of the respondents were very concerned about comments from readers (50%).
• Webtoon writers were in a state of excessive effort and immersion in their work, and the compensation was generally appropriate, but certain items (job stability, job prospects, and appropriateness of the income) were not appropriate.
• In regards to work-related violence, verbal violence (13%) and insulting behavior (15%) were most common, and the opponents were superiors (platforms, agencies) and customers.

(3) physical health and mental health indicators

• Subjective health is perceived worse than the general population.
• The experience of taking time off due to health problems was 26%, and the experience of working despite having health problems reached 41%.
• Most of the respondents experienced depressive symptoms (29%) and insomnia (28%).
• Suicidal thoughts (17%), suicide plans (8.5%), and suicide attempts (4.1%) were higher than the general population.

2) In-depth analysis

• There is a higher risk of being diagnosed with a depressive disorder, anxiety disorder, or sleep disorder by a doctor if the writer had experienced criticism (Adjusted Odds Ratio and 95% Confidence Interval90 [1.03-3.51], Adjusted Odds Ratio and Confidence Interval 2.00 [1.02-3.94], Adjusted Odds Ratio and Confidence Interval 1.91 [0.97-3.76]), respectively.
• Suicidal thoughts were also higher among writers that experienced being criticized. (Adjusted Odds Ratio and 95% Confidence Interval45 [1.01-5.93]).
• Having experienced criticism of their work was associated with an increased risk of a physician diagnosis of depressive disorder (Adjusted Odds Ratio and 95% Confidence Interval94 [1.35-11.49]) and insomnia symptoms (ISI); (Adjusted Odds Ratio and 95% Confidence Interval 3.79 [1.74-8.24]), respectively.
• In addition, those who felt that deadlines were not appropriate had a higher risk of being diagnosed with depressive disorder, anxiety disorder, sleep disorder or insomnia symptoms (Adjusted Odds Ratio and 95% Confidence Interval94 [1.40-6.17], Adjusted Odds Ratio and Confidence Interval 4.09 [1.65-10.11], Adjusted Odds Ratio 2.78 [1.22-6.33]), and (Adjusted Odds Ratio and 95% Confidence Interval 2.45 [1.36-4.42]), respectively.

IV. Conclusion

1) Precarious workers

Income is not stable.

• Webtoon writers are contracted on a per-work basis, with the main income determined by whether the contract is finalized or not.
• In general, the unit price is set according to the ‘customary market price’ suggested by the platform, and the moment the contract is terminated, the income disappears, and the level of income fluctuates greatly depending on the so-called bargaining power.

Job insecurity is common.

• There are many variables in the contract, and those variables are outside the control of the writers.
• The success of the work is directly tied to getting a ‘good spot’ on the platform to be selected by readers, which means that the platform is more than just a bulletin board. Artists are willing to lower their pay or increase the number of cuts themselves in order to be promoted or ranked high on the platform, and make excessive efforts to improve the quality of their webtoon drawings.
• Due to this, the excessive workload of writers increases the burden on the musculoskeletal system, and indiscriminate feedback through comments affects the mental health of writers. In this environment, writers feel insecure about whether they can continue to do this work.

The contractual relationship between the artist and the platform is not equal.

• Writers feel a great deal of pressure when a contract is terminated because they lose a source of income for one year and have to completely revise their plans for about a year.
• Since the posting of work on the platform has an absolute influence on the success and sales of the work, there is a tendency to accommodate the needs of the platform as much as possible.

2) Artistic workers

Deadline pressure is the norm.

• It is not easy to create something new, but the pressure is increased due to time constraints.
• The deadline is repeated every week, which is very physically and mentally exhausting.
• The artist’s personal life, the minimum amount of sleep time to take care of their health, and time to eat tend to be subordinated to deadlines.

Comments and the entertaining culture of contemporary art are also part of webtoons.

• Art has always been evaluated, but webtoons are especially indiscriminately evaluated and in real time by an unspecified number of readers online in the form of comments.
• Webtoon writers who are exposed defenselessly to comment culture where review and criticism are immediately mixed together for stimulation or recreation beyond a constructive evaluation are psychologically affected without any protection.

Webtoon writers are self-employed people who do art.

• Webtoon writers think of themselves as professionals who make art rather than business owners.
• Unlike other platforms that have an objective amount of work, they must perform all the roles of business owners while doing artistic work that requires constant self-development.
• Webtoon writers who sign independent contracts are not properly educated or trained about contracts, even though they need to know all about contracts as individual entrepreneurs.

Physical diseases are prevalent.

• Musculoskeletal disorders are common due to sitting and working for long periods of time.
• Writers can suffer from cystitis due to the lack of time to go to the bathroom as a result of deadline-driven work habits.
• Gastrointestinal disorders are common due to irregular eating habits.

There is a high prevalence of mental illness.

• There is a high prevalence of depression, anxiety disorders, and sleep disorders.
• Especially urgent intervention is required for the suicide attempt rate of 1.7%.

V. Recommendations

Basic work intensity must be lowered.

• Currently, among webtoon writers, the level of labor, which is called “basic requirement: more than 70 cuts per episode, uploaded once a week,” is very high.
• As a kind of standard that has already been established in the market, it has characteristics that cannot be adjusted by individual artists.
• Labor intensity is not a problem that can be solved simply by limiting the number of cuts and it is an important issue that must be considered along with the artist’s intention in the flow of the work.

Platforms need to take more responsibility.

• Webtoon platforms, which have created a new art genre, have an impact on the success of the work beyond simple posting. As planners and organizers, they must be most aware of this and intervene in the problems that result from this.
• A systemic solution is needed to mediate indiscriminate comments that are difficult for individual writers to resolve.
• From a long-term perspective, the operation of such a system requires considerable human resources and costs, so it needs to be institutionalized, not just a temporary measure driven by the platform’s good intentions.

A minimum standard that lowers instability should be required.

• Standardized contracts should be promoted for a minimum level of protection.
• Writers should be educated to develop competence as a contracting entity, including topics such as basic contract conditions and the consequences of contract provisions.

1. AFP (2015) South Korea ‘webtoon’ craze making global waves, AFP https://www.bangkokpost.com/tech/776381/south-korea-webtoon-craze-making-global-waves [↩]
2. Naga S, Neha M, Vitika V (2021) Webtoons market by types, Allied Market Research https://www.alliedmarketresearch.com/webtoons-market-A16830 [↩]
3. Cut refers to the number of panels in the webtoon. [↩]